Adam Smith’s Division of Labor Essay Example

Adam Smith’s Division of Labor Essay Smith was not the first to advance the theory that all wealth is derived from labor. A medieval church-man and a seventeenth-century philosopher had developed a labor theory of value. Smith, however, broke new ground in building a complete system of economic thought around the concept of productive labor. The opening lines of the Wealth of Nations illustrate the importance of his approach. He believes that the annual labor of every nation originally supplies it with all the necessaries and conveniences of life. 2 The earlier writers in analyzing the economic order had woefully underestimated the significance of the laboring man. They were too concerned with the activities of the manufacturer, the merchant, and the farmer to pay much attention to the simple artisan. In Smiths treatise the laboring poor occupy a position of primary importance.The labor expended upon the manufacture of a commodity establishes its value. The quantity and quality of the countrys total production is in lar ge measure determined by the ability and dexterity of the working population. All techniques and institutions which affect the skill of the laboring groups are therefore most important because they directly influence the wealth of a nation. (Fay, pp 75-81)Smiths emphasis upon the hitherto most neglected stratum of society was most radical, and it is not surprising that he ran into difficulties in developing his thesis. In the past, land had always been viewed as a productive force in the national economy; capital had likewise not been considered sterile. Smiths presentation of labors claim conflicted with the vested rights of land and capital. It soon became clear that some compromise would have to be established, because the intrenched position of the older claimants was very strong. Even as attorney for the plaintiff, Smith had great respect for the defendants. Their prestige rather overawed him. Although he at first contended that labor was the sole determinant of value, it was n ot long before he admitted that rent and profits might also influence value. This compromise contained many implicit contradictions, which Karl Marx almost a century later devoted some time to eradicate. He succeeded, but only to a limited extent, for though he strengthened the weak links in Smiths chain of reasoning, he added new ones which proved none too strong. (Brown, pp 123-131).Adam Smith, however, wrote a very interesting brief, despite its deficiencies in logic. The history of the world was in his opinion the history of the increasing efficiency of labor. The absence of specialization in antiquity accounts for the poverty of that period. The agriculturist could improve the yield of his crops only if he were able to make an intensive study of the land. He was, however, forced to spend a considerable part of his time in securing food, shelter, and clothing for himself and his family, and was therefore unable to devote his entire energies to the care of his plants. Some member s of the community showed great talents in the chase, while others proved to be expert house builders. After many centuries of development it became clear that the entire group would benefit if each member engaged in that activity for which he was best fitted. A hunter could kill within a very short time more deer than he could possibly use for his personal needs. A thatcher was able to put his own dwelling into condition by two weeks concentrated effort. A farmer, working on fertile land, could raise more than he could consume. The several specialists commenced to exchange their surplus commodities and labor power, and very soon the wealth of the community increased. An economic society could be most efficiently organized upon the basis of specialization and exchange.The first book of the Wealth of Nations is devoted almost entirely to an analysis of those forces which facilitated the division of labor among men. The treatment afforded the working population becomes highly signific ant in an approach which considers national progress to be largely determined by improvements in the specialization of labor. Merchants had maintained that English prosperity was due to their trading activities. The farming population had contended, although less frequently, that they formed the backbone of the national economy. Adam Smith, however, asserted that the welfare of all countries, at all periods in the worlds history, depended upon the status of labor and the development of the industrial arts. (Lloyd, pp 45-49)Adam Smith had not the least sympathy with the philosophers of this school. He deprecated the heavy taxation of necessities; future generations would suffer if the poor were unable to give their children a proper upbringing. If the laborers wages were lowered their offspring would probably suffer from malnutrition and exposure. Taxes which fall on a necessitous person are always cruel and oppressive; the worst taxes are those which bear more heavily on the poor th an on the rich. For instance the window levy was most unjust, for the poor could no longer afford to have either light or ventilation in their homes.The taxation of the poor cannot be supported even by mercantilistic arguments. A careful analysis proves that taxes upon labor or upon commodities used by labor are certain to be paid by their superiors. If the subsistence of wage earners were reduced their efficiency would be impaired and manufacturers would suffer. The latter, in order to protect themselves, would probably raise wages. In either case the middle and upper classes would be forced to bear the burden.The policy of England was to keep the laboring population servile and industrious. Merchants and manufacturers, fearful that they would have to foot the bill if the laborers improved their condition, attempted to stifle all social reform. No respectable member of English society would have advocated raising the standards of living of the laboring poor. Adam Smith, however, wa s Scottish and was therefore not oppressed by the taboos which prevailed south of the Midlands. He did not hesitate to emphasize the facts that rent and profits eat up wages, and that the two superior orders of people usually oppress the inferior one. Furthermore, he pointed out that unless circumstances force them, the wealthier classes never act generously or humanely in their dealings with their less fortunate brethren. Manufacturers loudly bemoan the high wages which they pay their workmen, but remain silent when profits are discussed. If the public complains about the dearness of commodities, the shrewd business men lose no time in placing the blame upon the high rewards of labor, forgetting to mention that their own rate of return might possibly influence prices. (Ross, pp 108-111).It was fantastic to fear high wages, for whatever improves the general welfare of the greater part of the community can never be considered an inconvenience to the whole. Poverty is a great social l iability. An able laboring population is possible only if workers receive ample remuneration for their efforts; hence to complain of the liberal rewards to labor is to lament the effect and the cause of the greatest public prosperity. As wealth increases, wages increase, and therefore population increases, all of which is for the good of the commonwealth.Thus to understand how the division of labor symbolizes a multiplication of the knowledge used in production, it is merely necessary to recognize that in a division-of-labor society, such as our own, there are as several distinct bodies of knowledge used in production as there are different specializations and subspecializations of employment. Steel producers, for instance, have a different body of knowledge from that of auto producers. Wheat farmers have a different body of knowledge from both of these and even from that of other farmers, for example vegetable growers or dairy farmers. The bodies of knowledge of all such specializa tions enter into the process of production in a division-of-labor society, and every individual is enabled to get products reflecting the total of such knowledge. Consequently, steel producers give the benefit of their knowledge to the whole rest of society; in return, they are capable to receive from the rest of society the benefit of the specialized knowledge held by all further categories of producers. Therefore it is with the members of every specialization. Â  (The Washington Times, pp 14-17)This is an outcome of huge importance, and its implication needs to be carefully measured. What a division-of-labor society symbolizes is the organization of thesame total sum of human brain power in a way that allows it to store and use greatly more knowledge than would otherwise be possible. To grab this point completely, we must consider the contrasting case of a non-division-of-labor society, for example exists in most of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. In those areas, where the overw helming majority of people live as almost self-sufficient farmers, each family knows fundamentally what all the others know about production. To verify this fact, one might imagine an effort to compile all the knowledge entering into production in such places. One might imagine a corps of interviewers who get a grant from the U.S. government to go out and write down all that the rural farm families of these areas know regarding production. After interviewing the first such family in each area, very little further information would be gained from interviewing the hundreds of millions of other such families. What this means, essentially is that the sum total of the knowledge used in production in a non-division-of-labor society is restricted to what the brain of just one or two individuals can hold. Any one farmer, or farmer plus his wife, in those areas holds virtually all of the knowledge that is used in production in the entire society. Â  (Bourne, pp 209-215)To put it gently, suc h circumstances is a case of wasteful duplication. It is the wasteful duplication of the mental contents of the human brainthe wasteful use of mans capability to store and use knowledge. In this respect and in this sense, a division-of-labor society is indispensable to the proficient use of the human mind in production. To the degree that production is divided into separate specializations, with separate bodies of knowledge, the same total of human brain power is enabled to store and use more knowledge, to the benefit of each and every individual member of that society. This is the meaning of the proposition that the division of labor symbolizes the multiplication of the knowledge used in production. It multiplies such knowledge to the extent that specializations and specialized bodies of knowledge exist. Also it multiplies likewise the benefits that man is capable to derive from the use of his mind.The enlarged body of knowledge that a division-of labor society makes probable is th e precondition for producing products and adopting methods of production that need more knowledge than any one person, family, village, or tribe can own. (Chandra, 166-168).A division-of-labor society is obviously indispensable for the production of all the wonderful products introduced over the last two centuries, from steam engines to rocketships. By the same token, it is equally indispensable for the ability to use modern, efficient methods of production in making goods that can be produced in modest quantities with little or no division of laborfor example, being able to use tractors and chemical fertilizers to help produce wheat.Closely related to the multiplication of the knowledge used in production is the fact that the division of labor makes possible a radical and progressive increase in the benefit derived from the existence of geniuses. In the absence of a division-of-labor society, geniuses, along with everyone else, must pass their lives in producing their own food, clo thing, and shelterassuming they are fortunate enough to have survived in the first place. Perhaps their high intelligence enables them to produce these goods somewhat more efficiently than do other people. But their real potential is obviously lostboth to themselves and to the rest of society.In contrast, in a division-of-labor society geniuses are able to devote their time to science, invention, and the organization and direction of the productive activity of others. Instead of being lost in obscurity, they become the Newtons, the Edisons, and the Fords of the world, thereby incalculably raising the productivity of every member of the division-of-labor society.The effect of a division-of-labor society is thus not only to increase the total of the knowledge that the same amount of human brain power can store and use, but also to bring that knowledge up to a standard set by the most intelligent members of the society. The average and belowaverage member of a division-of-labor society is enabled to produce on the strength of the intelligence of the most intelligent. Thus, in a division-of-labor society, people even of minimal intelligence are enabled to produce and obtain such goods as automobiles and television sets-goods which on their own they would not even have been able to imagine.And in each succeeding generation, geniuses are able to begin with the knowledge acquired by all the preceding generations, and then make their own, fresh contributions to knowledge. In this way, the knowledge and productive power of a division-of-labor society are able progressively to increase, reaching greater and greater heights as time goes on.In a division-of-labor society, not only productive geniuses, but everyone is enabled to concentrate on the kind of work for which he is best suited by virtue of his intellectual and bodily endowment. This principle applies to artistic and musical geniuses, to individuals with the kind of rare talents required to perform surgical opera tions or to be a champion athlete, on down to people whose special advantage may consist merely of such attributes as the possession of relatively keen eyesight or relatively great physical strength.As with productive geniuses, those with the potential ability to be great artists or musicians, great surgeons or athletes, or outstanding creators or performers of any kind, would not be able to realize their potential in the absence of a division-of-labor society. Because even if they managed to be born and reach adulthood, their time would be taken up with growing their own food and making their own clothing and shelter. In a division-of labor society, on the other hand, such individuals can realize their potential. And all the rest of mankind gains from itfrom being able to enjoy the art and music they create, from being able to live because of the surgical operations they perform, and from being able to have the pleasure of observing the feats they accomplish. (Perelman, pp 77-82)In a division-of-labor society, every productive advantage that individuals possess is likely to be put to use and to increase the productivity of labor. In a society of millions, hundreds of millions, or however many people, every person tends to focus on the specific things for which he is rationally and physically best suited. And therefore the production of everything tends to be carried on in the most proficient way it can be carried on in the circumstances. The production of everything tends to be carried on by those who can do it relatively best.All of the preceding discussion of the division of labor can be summarized by saying that the division of labor increases the efficiency with which man is able to apply his mind, his body, and his nature-given environment to production. It expands his capacity to store and use knowledge, which knowledge it raises to a standard set by the most intelligent members of society. This standard in turn tends to rise higher and higher in each s ucceeding generation, as creative geniuses again and again enlarge the stock of technological knowledge. The division of labor also increases the degree to which knowledge of production is assimilated, the yield to the time spent in acquiring it, and the efficiency with which it is disseminated. It increases the efficiency with which man applies his body to production inasmuch as it enables everyone to concentrate on whatever he is relatively best suited for by virtue of his bodily endowment. It also eliminates unnecessary motion in production. (Dumville, Torano, pp 166-175)On the basis of all of the foregoing considerations, it should be obvious that from the perspective of the production of wealth and all that depends on the production of wealth, a division-of-labor society is the form of society that is appropriate to mans nature. While man always possesses the faculty of reason, a division-of labor society is necessary if he is to use his rationality efficiently in production. I t is necessary if he is to actualize the productive potential provided by his possession of reason.It should be equally obvious that the existence of a division-of-labor society is to the material self-interest of every individual. Whoever, in the words of von Mises, prefers wealth to poverty and life and health to sickness and death, is logically obliged to value the existence of a division-of-labor society and all that it depends on. For it is the essential foundation of all significant wealth and of the vital contribution made by wealth to mans life and health. Take away a division-of-labor society, and production shrivels to the level of medieval feudalism, with its consequently recurring famines and plagues and resulting average life expectancy of twenty-five years-years, it should never be forgotten, whose passage was marked with cold, hunger, exhaustion, and pain. Apart from the amelioration provided by Western aid in the form of food and medicines, such continues to be the m iserable condition of human life today in all that vast part of the world that is not integrated into the division of labor.Thus, the widely held notion that life in society requires the sacrifice of the individuals self-interest is totally mistaken in regard to a division-of-labor society. That notion applies only to societies characterized by force and plunder, not to a division-of-labor society. A division-of-labor society represents the mutual cooperation of individuals for the purpose of achieving their own individual ends. The radical and progressive increase in the productivity of labor it brings about makes it possible for everyone to achieve his ends incalculably better within its framework than outside of it. (Gereffi, Korzeniewicz, pp 30-48).

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Achieving Universal Electricity Access PART I: INTRODUCTION Background of Study The importance of modern energy services in promoting socio-economic development has been extensively documented in the literature (Kaygusuz 2011), (Kanagawa and Nakata 2007) (Kanagawa and Nakata 2008). Access to modern energy services is closely related to other indicators of a descent standard of living in the 21st century, namely, availability of portable drinking water, literacy, health services, child mortality, etc (Meisen and Akin 2008). For example, in rural areas, the higher luminance of modern lighting brightens homes and encourages pupils to study in the nights; clean cookstoves and cookers using liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) can reduce incidences of indoor-air pollution caused by reliance on traditional biomass for cooking (Isihak, Akpan and Adeleye 2012), etc. As the most versatile carrier of energy, electricity is important in the provisions of basic social services in health, water, etc. Electricity is also useful promoting the income formation in rural areas through t he development of rural microenterprises (Akpan, Essien and Isihak 2013a). Electricity also powers large machinery in factories to increase productivity. Modern energy services, especially electricity, are crucial to several sectors of the economy of any country: higher education, agriculture, financial services, communication, rural development, etc. Despite the huge advantages of having access to electricity, several millions of persons around the world lack access to electricity. The International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that in 2011 about xxx billion persons lacked access to electricity of which xxx million were in sub-Saharan Africa (IEA 2011). Consequently, one of the major energy challenges confronting countries in sub-Sahara Africa is that of providing access to modern energy services to its citizens. The electricity access situation in Nigeria is similar to that of many developing countries: the electricity access rate in Nigeria – the percentage of population without access to electricity – is 56% (NPC 2014) which is equivalent to about xxx million persons. However, the electricity access rates in the various states vary significantly from 10.9% in Taraba State to 99.1% in Lagos State as shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1: Electricity access rate in Nigeria by states Source of data: (NPC 2014) Three main factors which are inter-related are responsible for this disparity in the electricity access rates across the states: The population density across the states varies significantly as shown in Fig. 2. Places with higher population density have higher commercial activities and in-turn higher demand for electricity. Therefore, transmission and distribution lines are often constructed to deliver electricity to such locations because the electricity so delivered will not be under-utilized[1]; The major sources of electricity generation are natural gas and hydro. The gas-powered plants are located in the Niger Delta area where there is abundance of natural gas while the hydropower plants are in Niger State. Because transmission lines are constructed to evaluate power from the generation source to demand areas, these states and other states along the path of the transmission lines tend to have higher electricity access rates; Due to the first two reasons itemized above, the national grid does not cover all parts of the country. The electricity grid covers the states with high population density but not those with low population density as shown in Fig. 3. Figure 2: Population density across the different states in Nigeria Source of data: (National Population Commission, Nigeria 2006) Figure 3: Map of Nigeria showing existing, ongoing, and proposed generation and transmission (HV) projects Source: Transmission Company of Nigeria Given the importance of electricity access to sustainable socio-economic development of a country, the government of Nigeria carried out comprehensive reforms in the electricity sector to promote efficiency in the sector. One of the objectives of the electricity sector reforms is to increase access to electricity in areas with low electricity access rate. Consequently, the Electric Power Sector Reform Act 2005 created the Rural Electrification Agency to set up and administer the Rural Electrification Fund. As noted in the Act, the purpose of the Fund is to promote rural electrification programs through public and private sector participation in order to achieve more equitable access to electricity across the various states and to ensure universal access to electricity in Nigeria within the shortest possible time. Most rural electrification projects are done by extending the existing grid to the unelectrified communities. However, studies have shown that in situations where there is a larger problem of availability of sufficient generation capacity such as in Nigeria, extending the existing grid only connects households to the grid but does not necessarily imply that electricity will be available for household or productive uses (Akpan, Essien and Isihak 2013a). Moreover, grid-extension is capital intensive which implies that it will only be cost-effective when there is adequate demand for electricity in the unelectrified communities, otherwise, it will lead to underutilization. Incidentally, as we highlighted earlier, the population densities of the states with low electricity access rate are also relatively low. In addition, substantial percentage of the population in these places lives in rural areas where energy is needed mainly to meet the basic needs of lighting and cooking. The high cos t of extending the existing grid, coupled with the low population density and the low energy demand implies that other options for increasing electricity access in these areas, i.e. decentralized option, may be considered. Indeed, studies have shown that the use of decentralized option to increase electricity access in rural areas with sparse population settlement pattern and low electricity demand profiles is usually cost-effective (Bhattacharyya 2012a). The decentralized option will often use locally-available energy sources, usually solar, wind, or hydro, to generating electricity to meet the demand in the unelectrified community. These locally available energy sources may be complemented by a stand-alone diesel/gasoline generating set. The role of the rural electrification planner in this situation is to examine the cost-effective technology option, between grid-extension and decentralized electrification, for providing access to electricity in unelectrified communities. Spatial Electricity Planning Given the huge capital outlay required to construct transmission and distribution grids, and the fact the in many developing countries a large percentage of the population resides in rural where the electricity demand profiles may be low thereby leading to gross under-utilization of electricity, several studies have used electricity planning models to obtain the cost-effective option between grid-extension and off-grid electrification for increasing electricity access in rural areas (Sinha and Kandpal 1991), (Nouni, Mullick and Kandpal 2008), (Parshall, et al. 2009) (Deichmann, et al. 2011). These studies examine the cost of delivering a given amount of electricity from the point where the existing grid terminates to an unelectrified community by extending the existing grid and compares that the cost of using an off-grid option to deliver the same amount of electricity. The cost of grid-extension usually covers the capital cost of extending the medium and/or low-voltage transmission or distribution lines to the unelectrified communities having different levels of load, the cost of increasing the generation capacity to meet the additional load levels, the cost of constructing 33/11kV substations if required, the maintenance cost, and the potential transmission/distribution losses. The cost of the off-grid option usually include the cost of constructing the distribution lines and the cost of generating electricity using different locally available sources of energy, and the maintenance cost. In more recent times, some studies (Parshall, et al. 2009), (Sanoh, et al. 2012) have incorporated geographic information system (GIS) models to this traditional electricity planning method. GIS enables the planner to visualize the spatial location of the unelectrified communities in reference to the location of the electricity grid and to calculate the spatial distance of the communities from the grid. This procedure eases the process of estimating the capital cost of extending the existing grid because the capital cost is directly proportional to the distance of unelectrified communities from the grid. Another study (Kemausuor, et al. 2014) applied the Network Planner Tool which is a free web-based program that integrates geospatial information with energy demand information at a disaggregated level to assist electricity sector planners in determining the least-cost technology option for increasing electricity access. The model was developed by the Sustainable Engineering Lab of th e Earth Institute, Columbia University, United States. Objective of the Study This study seeks to examine the cost and the least-cost technology options for achieving universal electricity access in Nigeria, i.e. electricity access for all, within a specified investment timeline. This is done by applying the Network Planner Model at the state level and then aggregating the results to provide a whole picture for the entire country. It is important to note that the model may be applied at the national level but we preferred the state level so as to provide a picture of the situation at a disaggregated level. Organization of the Study This study is organized into five parts: Part I is the Introduction which sets the background for the study; Part II is an overview of the electricity sector in Nigeria; and Part III is a presentation of the Network Planner Tool which is used in the Study. In Part IV, we present the comprehensive results; while in Part V we provide our concluding remarks. PART II: Electricity Sector in Nigeria Legal Framework The year 2005 is a pivot year in the organization of the electricity sector in Nigeria because of the Electric Power Sector Reform (EPSR) Act, 2005 which is the prevailing legal framework governing Nigeria’s electricity sector. Prior to 2005, the sector was managed by a centralized, vertically integrated, state-owned monopoly called National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) which was created in 1972. By the late 1990s and early 2000s, NEPA was characterized with large wage bills due to over-staffing, accumulated debt, low rate of recovery of bills, and corruption. The poor performance of the sector in terms of low generating capacity relative to high demand, and erratic nature of supply necessitated reforms. The reforms were envisaged as a vehicle to attract private sector investment in the generation segment, improve reliability of electricity services, and improve operational and managerial efficiency in the sector. Prior to the enactment of the EPSR Act 2005, there was the N ational Electric Power Policy in 2001 which expressed the readiness of government to engage in far reaching reforms to increase the operational efficiency of the sector and set the stage for the Act. The EPSR Act 2005 mandated the vertical unbundling the various segments of the electricity value chain; the horizontal unbundling of the facilities in the generation segment; the decentralization of the distribution activities; the privatization of the successor companies from the vertical and horizontal unbundling; the creation of an independent regulator (Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission) which is also mandated to promote private sector participation in the generating segment through independent power plants (IPPs); and the establishment of the Rural Electrification Agency. The present structure of the Nigerian electricity sector is shown in Fig. 1. Figure 1: Organizational structure of the Nigerian electricity market Source: Author’s compilation Energy resources and utilization Nigeria is highly endowed with energy resources. Its resources based comprises of solid, liquid, and gaseous fossil fuels as well as renewable energy although they are not equally distributed across the country. Fossil Fuels Nigeria’s crude oil is classified as â€Å"light† and â€Å"sweet† and is concentrated in the Niger Delta part of the country as well as the Bight of Bonny. At the end of 2011, Nigeria’s proved recoverable crude oil reserve was estimated to be 37.2 billion barrels making Nigeria to have the ninth largest  [2] crude oil reserves in the world and the second in Africa (World Energy Council, 2013). Nigeria produced about 1.75 million barrels of oil per day in 2013 (based on figures from the organization of petroleum exporting countries, OPEC) and exports a greater part of the unrefined crude oil. Xx% of domestic demand for refined products is met through imports. In terms of end-use, Xx% of gasoline (premium motor spirit) and diesel is consumed in the transportation sector, xx% for self-generated electricity, and the remaining used as industrial inputs (ref). As with crude oil, Nigeria’s natural gas is concentrated in the Niger Delta part of Nigeria and the Bight of Bonny. At the end of 2011, Nigeria’s proved recoverable gas reserves was estimated to be 5110 billion cubic meters (180.5 trillion cubic feet) making Nigeria to have the eight largest natural gas reserve in the world and largest in Africa (World Energy Council, 2013). Although Nigeria produces and exports much of its gas, a large proportion is being flared. In 2011, (World Bank, Flaring Estimates Produced by Satellite Observations, 2011) estimate that 14.6 billion cubic meters of natural gas was being flared in Nigeria. Domestic utilization of gas is mainly for power production and a small percentage is used for domestic cooking. Of the xxxMW of installed generation capacity in Nigeria, 6558MW is from gas-powered generating plants (UNECA, 2011). Nigeria also has considerable amount of coal and tar sand which are barely utilized. The Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) 2012 estimated these to be 2.7 billion tons and 31 billion barrels of oil equivalent respectively (Energy Commission of Nigeria, 2012). Renewable Energy Nigeria is blessed with enormous renewable energy resources, mainly hydro, solar, wind, and biomass. The hydrography of Nigeria is made up of several rivers as shown in Fig xx and these rivers are themselves parent rivers to many other adjoining streams. This network of water bodies provides huge potential hydro-electric power. The REMP estimated that up to 11250MW and 3500MW of large and small hydro electricity power respectively can be obtained from Nigeria’s hydro resources. However, this potential has been grossly under-utilized because only 1900MW and 64.2 MW of large and small hydro power plants have been installed till date. The southern fringes with the Atlantic Ocean experience up to 3500mm/year of rainfall occurring in over eight months while rainfall in the northern Sahelian region has rainfall sometimes last for only three months yielding 500mm/year. This implies that even though there is high potential for mini hydro electric schemes in the entire country, the most attractive regions for mini hydro power will be Southern region. Figure 2: Major Rivers in Nigeria Source: Author’s adaptation from blank map by RadosÅ‚aw Botev Due to the diverse climatic zones ranging from the mangrove swamps in the South to the Sahel savanna in the North, together with very diverse physical geography, Nigeria’s solar and wind resources vary significantly across different parts of the country. According to the REMP, average solar irradiation is between 4 and 6.5 kWh/m2/day while average wind speed is 2-4m/s at 10m for mainland areas. Till date, only about 15MW of solar installations exist often as solar home services, public lighting, or traffic lights (refs). Geothermal energy resources exist in some part of the country (Kurowska Schoeneich, 2010) identified warm springs in Ikogosi (Ondo State), Wikki (Bauchi State), Ruwan zafi (Gyakan hot spring, Adamawa State), and Akira (Awe local government area, Nassarawa State). However, a techno-economic feasibility and viability study on the potential for geothermal based electricity is yet to be conducted till date. Biomass is perhaps the most used energy form in Nigeria. According to xxx, biomass use consist of xx% of final energy consumption in Nigeria. Xx% of rural areas rely on biomass to meet their cooking needs (expand and consolidate). Biomass accounts for 37% of aggregate energy demand and 95% of rural energy use (REMP, 2005). Biomass is being depleted in some of the northern states due to desert encroachment. Studies have shown that even people with electricity access still really on biomass for cooking (Bhattacharyya, 2012; IEA, 2010). The reliance on biomass for cooking seem to be more cultural than economical Electricity Supply and Demand Publicly distributed electricity generation in Nigeria is dominated by hydro and gas-fired plants with an installed capacity of 1900MW and 6558MW respectively (UNECA, 2011). However, as at the end of 2012, the combine operational capacity of all the generating facilities was below 4600MW (FGN, 2013). There are also cogeneration plants; completed generation projects under the National Integrated Power Projects (NIPPs)[3]; and stranded power from completed IPPs which are yet to be connected to the grid (Eberhard Gratwick, 2012). As a fast-growing economy with a population of over 165 million (World Bank, 2013) and a rising number of middle-class, the demand for electricity in Nigeria far outpaces the effective capacity to supply. Daily data on peak generation and peak demand forecast from May through September, 2014 from the website of the Presidential Task Force on Power Reforms[4] showed that peak generation fluctuate between 3000MW and 4000MW while peak demand is over 12000MW yield ing a supply gap of between 8000MW and 9000MW with resulting frequent sporadic outages in areas that are connected to the grid. Moreover, Nigeria’s generation capacity per capita is relatively low when compared to other developing countries as shown in table xxx while the demand for electricity is constantly increasing. (what is the estimated electricity demand in Nigeria and the projected level of increase? ) The program requires data at different levels – household, community, and national. At the household level, data on household electricity demand profile are required. Since households belong to communities, the summation of the electricity demand of all households in a community forms the electricity demand – and also requires different types of data which may be grouped into five categories. We present below the data requirement and the modeling procedure of the Network Planner Tool. Geospatial data The model requires data on the spatial location (longitude and latitude) of the demand centers. The model also requires data on the coverage of the existing medium voltage in the area where demand centers are located. [1] It is important to mention that in states that have very low population density, there is also much variation in the population densities across the local government areas (LGAs). For example, even though the population density of Taraba State is 54persons/km2, within Taraba, the population density varies from 10 persons/km2 in Gashaka LGA to 713 persons/km2 in Jalingo LGA (2006 Census Report figures) [2] Tenth, if oil sands are included in Canada’s oil reserves. [3] Details of the structure and projects under the NIPP can be found at http://www.nipptransactions.com/ [4] http://www.nigeriapowerreform.org/

life and death :: essays research papers

What It Takes to Overcome Suffering When dealing with hardship in one’s life, people deal with it in diverse ways. One may overcome suffering through their own thoughts and ventilation, or by through their relationships with themselves, other people, or even a higher being. Alice Walker, an African American writer, narrows the scope of suffering to a single, courageous woman in her novel, The Color Purple. Through this remarkable woman, Celie, Walker illustrates that even when life can’t get any worse, one can overcome impossible odds. Alice Walker illustrates through Celie’s triumph over Mr. _____, one overcomes suffering through the presence of strong positive relationships. The obstacles that Celie overcomes are indicative of the relationships that she acquires. Through the relationships that Celie forms with God, Sofia, Nettie, Shug, and the ultimate relationship she develops with herself, she is able to overcome the abuse and hardship that is present in her life and her past. Celie’s upbringing was not one, that which someone would call typical. She must care for her brothers and sisters, and is already burdened with the cooking and cleaning of the household because of her mother’s deteriorating health. And if that is not a harsh struggle enough, Celie is being continuously raped by the man she knows to be her father. Celie gives birth to two of her father’s children, whom he sells after Celie gives birth. She is tormented with the thoughts of her two born children, and why these horrible things happen to her. Celie is mistreated and abused day to day, and accepts this as the norm childhood. Not only is the young, innocent Celie raped Ventura 2 again and again, she is beat by this man, when she does something he does not approve of. â€Å"He beat me today cause he say I winked at a boy in church† (Walker 5). She is victimized by this man repeatedly and cannot help but only wonder why. She is thought of as nothing but a sexual object, and is taken advantage of over and over. She is stepped on repeatedly by her stepfather and is threatened not to say anything. â€Å"You better not never tell nobody but God. It’s kill your mammy† (Walker 1). She is silenced not to tell anyone about her explicit rapes because she knows it would kill her mother, and therefore only expresses her hardship to God. This poor young girl deals with hardship most adults do not even encounter, but handles it with her own prerogative.

Advertising Speech Outline

Angela Martin GP- To Advertise SP- To Advertise to my audience the benefits of using Febreze odor eliminating products CI- Febreze is a brand of household odor eliminator manufactured by Proctor & Gamble that is a highly-effective odor remover for cooking, animal, work and smoke odors. A home is truly the heart of the family, so having a home that’s happy, good-smelling, and comfortable and clean is important to life. Febreze Odor Eliminator can help you breathe a lot easier in your home. Febreze just doesn’t cover up odors; it penetrates deep into fabrics and the air to eliminate odors and leaves a light fresh scent.Using Febreze is just another way to make you breathe happy and keep your surroundings smelling fresh. For this reason, I’d like to share with you some of the benefits of using Febreze Odor Eliminating products. In the next few minutes, I will discuss: 1) What Febreze is and where it comes from; 2) The active ingredients that makes it work; and 3) Th e safety and the availability of Febreze products. I. In 1998, Procter and Gamble (P&G) introduced a new household product intended to enable consumers to remove odors from fabrics A.Febreze is classified as an air freshener by Proctor and Gamble 1. According to Chemical and Engineering News, Procter & Gamble introduced a cyclodextrin-containing fabric spray called Febreze. When sprayed on a fabric, some of the cyclodextrins in the product release a pleasant fragrance. 2. This product uses a compound called cyclodextrin, which has a cone-shape which allows it to trap volatile molecules that cause odors. B. All kinds of Febreze, scented or unscented, have the same active ingredient. It is beta-cyclodextrin, which is a carbohydrate. 1.Specifically, it is an eight-sugar ringed molecule that is made during the conversion of starch. 2. It is typically made from the starch found in corn 3. The cornfields of the Midwest make cleaning products, too! II. Febreze works well in the home or car . No matter where you find musty or smelly fabric, Febreze can eliminate the odors quickly without leaving a heavy residue of its own scent. A. Febreze is safe for nearly all fabric surfaces and odors fade away as Febreze dries. 1. Febreze works well without added side effects like overbearing smell or skin allergies.Angela Martin 2. The ASPCA considers Febreze safe in households with dogs and cats when used as directed. B. After the launch of Febreze, rumors spread on the Internet that it is dangerous to household pets, such as dogs. According to Snopes. com, these rumors are false. 1. The National Animal Poison Control Center have no evidence that Febreze, when used according to label instructions is harmful to pets 2. Veterinary toxicology experts working for the ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center consider Febreze fabric freshener products to be safe for use in homes with pets. 3. t’s approved by the ASPCA for use around cats and dogs since December, 1998 and does not cont ain Zinc Chloride. III. Whereas candles once dominated the category, home air fresheners have driven the growth over the past several years. A. Innovation–primarily in the air freshener segment–has propelled the growth of the overall market, says PF publisher Tatiana Mermen. â€Å"Consumers have fallen in love with technological gadget diffuser devices as well as the more passive reed diffusers,† 1. The recession has taught a lot of us what we can live without and what we can't.Air freshener, it appears, is in the second category. 2. Among sprays, IRI-reported mass sales for Febreze Air Effects, introduced in 2004, reached $70. 6 million last year, eclipsing Ousts mass sales of $45. 9 million, PF reports. B. Febreze comes in a variety of sizes and strengths Regular strength (500ml), Extra Strength (500ml) Extra Strength (1 liter). There is also a small handy size (100ml) 1. Febreze Odor Eliminating products are sold at your neighboring stores: a. CVS, Targets, W algreens, and Giant Eagle are some stores that sell Febreze b.Febreze products can also be purchased online. 2. The product initially sold poorly until P;G realized that people had become accustomed to the smells in their own homes, then switched to linking it to pleasant smells and cleaning habits to produce the successful product. a. To conclude Febreze was the first successful product in this new field of fabric cleaning, and it does work. b. Remember this is a superb convenience product that if used according to instructions works well, it is not a replacement to cleaning itself. Angela MartinIn the last few minutes, I have discussed; 1) What Febreze is and where it comes from; 2) The active ingredients that Febreze contains; and 3) The safety an availability of Febreze. The makers of Procter and Gamble suggest Febreze can safely and effectively be used on car seats, sofas, curtains, clothes, sports shoes, and pet bedding as examples. In today’s modern world and busy life styles there are a vast range of convenience products to make life easier and Febreze is just one such item. It claims to safely remove odors from various fabrics, upholstery and surroundings.One thing I will point out in my opinion that you should bear in mind; this is NO SUBSTITUTE or replacement for clean air but it sure smells like it with Febreze. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. â€Å"Febreze review†. Ciao Shopping Intelligence. Retrieved September 14, 2001. 2. â€Å"Chemical Functional Definitions – Cyclodextrin†. Procter;Gamble. 2005. 3. Uncomplexed cyclodextrin solutions for odor control on inanimate surfaces. US Pat. No. 5,714,137. Filed 1994; assigned 1998. 4. . â€Å"Ask the Expert: Poison Control – Febreze†. ASPCA. 2012. Retrieved 2012-0219.

How to Handle Awkward Situations at Work

How to Handle Awkward Situations at Work It’s always nice to get as friendly as you can with the people you’ll spend so much of your waking adult life working alongside. But building personal relationships at work can create a few sticky situations. Here are a few of them, and what to do when you find yourself in trouble. 1.  When You Get Promoted and Your Coworker Doesn’tYou get one, your friend in the same position doesn’t. Now there’s resentment and a new power dynamic to negotiate. You can’t share your work drama with the same abandon anymore, because you’re in different roles. The kind of belly-aching you’re accustomed to is no longer appropriate. Also be prepared to withstand some initial resentment.Either way, it’s best to talk about it once out in the open. Be proactive. Address the aspects of your relationship that have to change according to your work functions, but emphasize what aspects of your friendship do not have to change. Check in, be humble, and be honest. It’ll help you both navigate the new situation if you’re still on the same page and can express some solidarity.2. When  You Become Friends With Your BossYou and your boss have become close outside of work. You get in a fight. It makes things†¦ awkward at the office. This is normal. All friends fight. The only tricky bit is not compromising either of your jobs. Keep things civil and professional, and try not to be too defensive. If it’s a minor thing, take a bit of distance, cool off, then send an olive branch email to smooth it over. If it’s major, make it clear that it will not impact your daily office routines, but make a plan to chat outside the office after work.3. When You want Skip Out on a Social EventYour coworker wants you to double date! Fun, right!? But you don’t want to. That’s totally fine. You’re under no obligation to do so. Trouble is, turning it down can be a little tricky. You’ll want t o be as firm as possible, without being mean. When in doubt, try to downshift. Say you’re super busy and would prefer to have some one-on-one time, maybe coffee or lunch! Eventually, she’ll get the hint.4. When You’re  Fighting With Your CoworkerThis is the same as fighting with your boss, just that the stakes are slightly lower. Though you also have the potential to damage the other’s reputation in the office. Be careful not let the fight spill over into the work day and make either of you act unprofessionally. Otherwise, the same rules apply.5.When  You Don’t Want to Make Friends With EveryoneYou’re close with a couple of your coworkers, but not another. You’re under no obligation to let this other coworker into your clique. People have the right to chose their friends and you are not required to be friends with people just because you work together. But do be sensitive to the feelings of the person you are not including. Avoid talking about all the fun stuff you and your pals are going to do in front of this other coworker. It’s the kind way to behave.6.  When You Don’t Fit in at WorkIf you’re the one on the outside of the cool kids clique at work, don’t worry. It doesn’t say anything about you necessarily. And you certainly shouldn’t take it personally. Be warm and civil with your coworkers, and then divert your friendship-forging attention elsewhere. Make sure you maintain an active and fulfilling social life outside of the office so you don’t get discouraged by not being part of the crowd. The upside here is that you’ll focus more on your work and not be as easily distracted by office banter.7. When You Overhear Hurtful GossipYou overhear your coworkers talking about you behind your back. Resist the temptation to throttle them. You don’t have to confront them, but you shouldn’t hide and pretend you didn’t hear either. Take t ime to cool off and give them the space to do the adult thing and apologize. If they don’t, they’re probably not worth talking to.8. When Your Coworkers are Mooching Off of YouAre you always paying for the coffee trip? The happy hour round? Rather than quietly resenting this state of affairs, give your coworkers the benefit of the doubt and the opportunity to set things right. Try saying, â€Å"Hey, you mind grabbing this round? I got the last few.† Or something equally casual. It’s awkward the first couple of times, but you’ll be glad you got better at asking. It’s better than slowly going broke!

Gothic Horror Story Essays

Gothic Horror Story Essays Gothic Horror Story Essay Gothic Horror Story Essay The cask of Amontillado , Von Kennel and The Black Cat all share similar elements of the typical gothic horror story. Three elements that they all share are a typical gothic setting, women as victims, and madness/derangement on the part of the narrator or mall character. In The Masque of the Red Death Poe creates a gothic horror setting by using a lot of dark imagery. He describes the Princes castle as a dark, secluded abbey. But, we dont know where it is located or where the storys set, leaving no ties to the real world. The castle has seven rooms that are all have different color themes: blue, purple, green, orange, white, and violet. The seventh room however doesnt particularly follow this color scheme. Its all black with deep blood red colored windows, creating an eerie effect when the candlelight shines through. It also has a threatening clock that chimes every hour. This last room is different than the rest of the rooms because it symbolizes death. Poe chose to design the rooms the way he did to symbolize life to death, the flirts blue room being birth and the last black room being death. : The castle itself Is supposed to be a safe place for the healthy to party away from the dying people on the outside. The truth Is Its not actually safe; they are trapped Inside the insane Princes castle. All of these things support the gothic setting that Poe has Prince Prospers supports Popes use of giving the main character a mad or deranged personality. The narrator basically informs us that the Prince might be insane by stating, There are some who would have thought him mad. His followers felt that he was not. First of all, he lives in a secluded castle set off from the rest of his kingdom. This shows us that he clearly doesnt care about his subjects. If he was a good ruler he would keep his home near them so that he could be aware of what they are up to. He has a very fancy artistic taste with a strange love of all things bizarre. He loves to live in the good and ignore all of the bad. This would explain why he would have a masquerade inside his castle while the rest of his kingdom is dying on the outside. Prince Prospers doesnt even want to think about all that is going wrong. He is so selfish that he locks all of the sick, dying people out while he celebrates inside his castle. Although, we get some indication in the story that a lot of this may not even be real. It may Just be entirely Prince Prospered visions/dreams, and all of the events and characters are Just figments of his imagination. However, we dont know this for sure. But, if it is true, then that Just supports how crazy he really is. There is a strange man in a suit and a mask who appears towards the end of the story, and no one could seem to get rid of him. People tried to grab him and see who was behind the mask, but no one was there. This is evidence of a supernatural force. The figure is described as tall and gaunt and blood-spattered. He appears right before the last stoke of the clock which is counting down to death. We believe that this supernatural figure represents the red death itself. Poe created this figure to show that no matter what you do, you cant escape death. You cannot avoid fate, and all of the people in this story were destined to die eventually. The plot in The Tell-Tale Heart is revolved around an insane individual who kills an old man because of his Multitude eye. The setting is described as black as pitch with the thick darkness, creating an eerie mood. There is a vague description of the action and the house where the story takes place, leaving you wondering. This all supports the typical gothic setting that Poe created. The main character in this story insists that he is sane, which basically proves that he is not. He sneaks into an old mans bedroom every night at midnight, which shows he is clearly deranged. He doesnt like this man because of his pale blue eye, with a film over it, that apparently looks similar to the eye of a vulture. One of the nights that he sneaks into the old mans room he hears what he believes to be the old mans heartbeat, getting louder, louder.. Louder. He feels that is it getting so loud hat the neighbors may hear it, and he must kill him to get it to stop. He crushes him with a mattress until he suffocates and then dismembers the body and stuffs him under the floorboards. He later turns himself into the police because he thinks that they can hear the dead old mans heartbeat from the floorboards underneath. The haunting of the old mans heart is possibly evidence of the supernatural. The fact that it was audible underneath the floorboards even though the man was deceased suggests that there may have been a supernatural force. The old man could have been haunting him for what he did on purpose. Poe did this to show exactly insane the old man is that he thought he could actually hear his heartbeat A gothic setting is used in The Black Cat to show man-kinds dark side. Black cats are known for bad luck and superstitions, and Poe purposefully used this cat to create an eerie mood. The setting is described as dark and shadowy. There are many different settings in this story, although none of them have much physical description. This story is written from the main characters Jail cell, explaining all of the events that led him to imprisonment. Murder also occurs in this story, giving more proof of a gothic setting. The main character in this story used to have a nice personality. He was kind to everyone and was very loving. Then, he became an alcoholic. He became very violent and ill-tempered, and abused his wife and pets. He eventually kills his pet black cat, which he now believes is haunting him. He sees it all the time, and each time the cat appears in smaller and smaller places. He also later kills his wife, and hides her in one of the walls in his home. All of these things prove that there is clearly something wrong with the main character, and he is definitely insane. The main character keeps seeing visions of a black cat. It will appear, disappear, and then reappear, tormenting and reminding him of his evil deed. He believes that this is the ghost of his cat that he killed. Then, the mans house burns down, and the only wall left standing is the one where he hid his dead wife. The police discover this and arrest the man. This shows that there may be evidence of the supernatural. His house mysteriously burnt down and that Just happened to be the only wall left. His wife may be haunting him from the dead, making sure that he would be punished for what he did. The Cask of Amontillado uses a typical gothic horror setting throughout the story.

Media Diary Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Media Diary Analysis - Essay Example s, I also visit the i-tunes website/application where I listen to music as I dress and do a couple of my morning chores, which psyches me up for the good day ahead. During the day, I only get chances to blog or chat in between classes, during breaks and after the classes in the evening. However, this is not usually a fixed schedule as sometimes the classes might not take long, during breaks I’m sometimes caught up with other activities like finishing assignments (that’s when I get to do the research part) or discussing trending issues in the fashion and celebrity world. When am in school, I am mostly engaged in the media sections that I can access through my mobile phone hence programs and movies are sometimes rare for me to watch or even download; however, for music I listen to and download frequently. In the evenings, I get to watch and follow the popular programs and shows courtesy of the cable network; additionally, it’s the only time that most of my friends are free in between the week so am always active in almost all the social websites through the facilitation of the multiple applications. After all the shows that I follow are done sometimes I get to watch movies either online through Netflix or some that I may have bought; furthermore, at times I treat myself to some shopping online. During the weekend, most of my time is spent on the media since I do not get to go to school and most of my friends and relatives are also free or less busy; either from work or school also. The numbers of hours I spend on the media during the weekend are almost double those of the weekdays; my personal chores are the only things I partake in that do not involve the media. It is during this time that I get to catch up on the latest news that I missed during the week and engage in trends on the social sites, send pictures to family and friends, and do a little bit of shopping as I watch more programs and movies. In this situation they are a few comparisons in the way

Preventative Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Preventative Education - Essay Example Since COPD is primarily a disease related to excessive or long-term smoking and is completely preventable from both a pharmacological and non-pharmacological perspective and there are numerous methods that can be implemented to focus on the prevention, accurate diagnosis, and management of this disease (Barnett, 2009). Through a comprehensive understanding of the disease, as well as the physical, psychological and social impact COPD has on the patient, their careers, and their families, healthcare professionals will be better equipped to comprise management plans that are effective in all the affected areas of the patient’s life (Barnett, 2009). Formulating a collaborative approach that includes working with other healthcare professionals relative to the patient’s care like physiotherapists, occupational therapists, district nurses and social workers will enable a holistic approach to the patient’s care to be established and maintained (Barnett, 2009). Through th is approach, the healthcare professional can help the patient examine numerous aspects of their lifestyle that may be detrimental to their health and exacerbate their COPD. Providing the patient with complete care and information is the most vital tool a nurse can provide to their patient. In the instigation of preventative routines, successful implementation of a case management scheme including the medical interventions available can help establish a routine of such care within the institution. Even though the current treatments are limited in helping relieve symptoms, nurses can do a lot to help educate patients and enable them to cope with their condition to reduce the progression of the disease (Barnett, 2006). The most vital piece of information a... This paper approves that many opportunities for health promotion through patient education are underutilized in all aspects of healthcare. Through education, nurses can develop the skills necessary to use every opportunity for promoting health in everyday practice and help their patients become educated in various methods to promote and preserve their own well-being. Keeping the needs of the facility and the needs of the patient balanced is the duty of the nurse and proper case management will help the nurse keep these contradictory aspects well in hand. This essay makes a conclusion that incorporating theories of holistic care with those of case management can help the nurse provide the best care possible for the patient at the lowest cost to the institution. COPD is a systemic disease with high and increasing worldwide prevalence. The onset of this disease has been associated with both individual and community-based factors and COPD is usually the result of a combination of these factors. Numerous strategies are available to manage or prevent COPD, and nursing education is needed to empower nurses to educate their patients and present proper solutions through case management schemes that will benefit the patients and the institutions through effective, cost-minimal methods of treatment. Nurses all over the world have important roles in fighting the COPD pandemic and health promotion is the best tool available to keep healthy people healthy as long as possible.