George Sand Controversial and Popular Writer

George Sand (born Armandine Aurore Lucille Dupin, July 1, 1804 — June 9, 1876) was a controversial yet popular writer and novelist of her time. Considered a Romantic idealist writer, she was read among the artists and intelligentsia. Early Life Called Aurore as a child, she was left in the care of her grandmother and mother when her father died. Seeking to escape conflict with her grandmother and mother, she entered a convent at 14, and later joined her grandmother in Nohant. A tutor encouraged her to wear mens clothing. She inherited her grandmothers estate, and then married Casimir-Franà §ois Dudevant in 1822. They had two daughters together. They separated in 1831, and she moved to Paris, leaving the children with their father. Jules Sandeau and First Written Works She became the lover of Jules Sandeau, with whom she wrote some articles under the name J. Sand. Her daughter Solange came to live with them, while her son Maurice continued to live with his father. She published her first novel, Indiana, in 1832, with a theme of womens limited choices in love and marriage. She adopted the pseudonym George Sand for her own writing. After separating from Sandeau, George Sand legally separated from Dudevant in 1835, and won custody of Solange. George Sand had a notorious and conflict-ridden relationship with the writer Alfred de Musset, from 1833 to 1835. George Sand and Chopin In 1838, she began an affair with the composer Chopin which lasted until 1847. She had other lovers, though was notoriously unable to be physically satisfied in any of her affairs. In 1848, at the time of the uprising, she moved to back to Nohant, where she continued writing until her death in 1876. George Sand was notorious not only for her free love affairs, but also for public smoking and for dressing in mens clothing. Family Background Father: Maurice Dupin (died in his daughters childhood)Mother: Sophie-Victoire DelabordeGrandmother: Marie Aurore de Saxe, Madame Dupin de Franceuil Education Convent of the Dames Augustines Anglaises, Paris, 1818-1820 Marriage and Children Husband: Baron Casimir-Francois Dudevant (married 1822, separated legally 1835)Children: Maurice (1823-1889), Solange (1828-1899) Notable Writings Indiana (1832)c (1832)Lelia (1833)Jacques (1834)Andre (1835)Mauprat (1837)Spiridion (1838)Les sept cordes de la lyre (1840)Horace (1841)Consuelo (1842-43)La Mare au diable (1846)Francois le champi (1847-48)La petite Fadette (1849)Les Maitres sonneurs (1853)Histoirede ma vie (1855)Elle et lui (1859) Print Bibliography The Story of My Life: The Autobiography of George SandFlaubert-Sand: The Correspondence of Gustave Flaubert and George SandHoraceIndianaLeliaMarianneViaje a Traves del CristalValentineA Womans Version of the Faust Legend: The Seven Strings of the Lyre.George Sand: Collected Essays. 1986.Barry, Joseph. Infamous Woman: The Life of George Sand. 1977.Cates, Curtis. George Sand: A Biography. 1975.Datlof, Natalie. The World of George Sand.Dickinson, Donna. George Sand: A Brave Man, the Most Womanly Woman. 1988.Eidelman, Dawn D. George Sand and the 19th-Century Russian Love-Triange Novels. 1994.Ferra, Bartolome. Chopin and George Sand in Majorca. 1974.Gerson, Noel B. George Sand: A Biography of the First Modern Liberated Woman. 1973.Godwin-Jones, Robert. Romantic Vision: The Novels of George Sand.Jack, Belinda. George Sand: A Womans Life. 2001.Jordan, Ruth. George Sand: A Biographical Portrait. 1976.Naginski, Isabelle Hoog. George Sand: Writing for Her Life. 1991.Powell, David. George Sand. 1990.Schor, Naomi. George Sand and Idealism. 1993.Winegarten, Renße. The Double Life of George Sand: Woman and Writer. 1978.

Open Freedom Of The Internet - 1095 Words

Open To Freedom The internet is unparalleled tool used as a super highway connecting users to a vast wealth of information and knowledge. Networks work together to share information, content, and data around the world. Users and Content Providers should have the right to access each other without being charge more to connect to one another or being denied access as a result of ISP’s not agreeing with the content of the provider. Therefore in order to preserve the equality of the internet, Net Neutrality must be protected. The internet was a project of the Defense Department’s Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) which is also in charge of developing space-age technologies, rockets and computers. With no single inventor, it evolved over time and was developed to be a weapon during the Cold War because of the government s fear of losing the nations phone system. The History.com Staff Says, â€Å"By the end of 1969, just four computers were connected to the ARPAnet, but the network grew steadily during the 1970s. In 1971, it added the University of Hawaii’s ALOHAnet, and two years later it added networks at London’s University College and the Royal Radar Establishment in Norway. As packet-switched computer networks multiplied, however, it became more difficult for them to integrate into a single worldwide â€Å"Internet.† By the end of the 1970s, a computer scientist named Vinton Cerf had begun to solve this problem by developing a way for all of the COMPUTERS on all of theShow MoreRelatedThe Impact Of Internet On The Internet1616 Words   |  7 PagesThe amount of revenue the Internet brings in a single year is has drastically increased in the past couple years and it will exponentially keep growing as the years go by. 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Truthfully, they were just trying to look out for me and try helicopter parenting, opposing from their usually lenient style of parenting. As we had a discussion on my presence on the in ternet, I began to be creeped out about the

Medical Genetics Down Syndrome

Question: Discuss about the Medical Genetics for Down Syndrome. Answer: Introduction DS is a persistent state caused by the extra copy of chromosome 21(Hsa21). The parents of DS affected children are normal atypically on context to genetics. The chance of having an extra copy of chromosome 21 is 95%. This extra copy is presented randomly when there is some form of abnormality during the process of formation of egg or sperm. In some cases the parents may pass on the genes, increasing the chances of the grandchildren to have Down syndrome. For the rest of the 5% cases, the syndrome is inherited from a healthy parent. The detection for the presence of the silent risk for Down syndrome in the DNA can b done with the help of some very useful tests that give accurate results. DS results when a complete or partial copy of the chromosome 21 is present. The chromosomes are the collection of genetic information present in every cell within the human body. Generally, 46 chromosomes present in human body are organized in 23 pairs of chromosomes. Among them, 22 pairs are known as autosomes and one pair referred to as sex chromosomes. However, in individuals with DS, an extra copy of the chromosome 21 is found and this condition is referred to as trisomy 21. Hence, such individuals have 47 chromosomes instead of 46 chromosomes. As a result, present of this three copies of chromosome 21 with genetic material leads to the occurrence of DS (Malt et al., 2013).The risk of being affected by the disorder increases from 0.1% among the 20 years old mothers to 3% within the mothers in the age group of 45 years (nads.org, 2016). Until date, there has not been found any activity related to behavioral patterns or environmental determinants that alter the risk of the occurren ce of disorder.The individuals with this genetic disorder have some distinguishing facial as well as physical characteristics, medical complications and cognitive disabilities. The facial traits include upturned eyes, flat nose, small nose, small mouth with proportionally larger tongue and round face with flattened profile on a average. The physical features include small feet and short finger (Langlois et al., 2013). They have higher chances of developing medical complications. They have vision and hearing difficulties too. They are found with heart defects that might be mild or severe. In addition to the above-mentioned issues, they might suffer from gastrointestinal problems, thyroid functioning, chances of developing cancer and mental illness. A pedigree chart for DS is a rough outlining of the likelihood of a child for developing with this condition because of the previous generations. Since, the DS is not an inherited disorder, so accurate diagram for predicting the chances of developing it is not possible. It occurs in case where a child possesses an extra copy of chromosome (reference). Down syndrome phenotype is the result of a dosage imbalance occurring in the genes found on human chromosome 21 (Hsa 21). The genetic characteristics of Down syndrome have been widely investigated by scientists in the past one decade. The length of 21 p is 515 Mb [12] while the length of 21q is 33.5 Mb [11]. At the time of initial sequencing of 21q, it was estimated that a total number of 225 genes are presented in the sequence. Around 40.06% repetitions in the sequences are found in Hsa 21 [11]. Out of the sequence repetitions, 10.84% are SINEs, 15.15% are LINEs and 9.21% are LTR. Genetics of Down syndrome Down syndrome babies are generally formed due to the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21 that results in trisomy. Down syndromes can be caused in babies also due ring chromosome or isochromosomal condition and Robertsonian translocation. In Isochrome condition two long arms of the chromosome are found to be separating together, in contrast to the normal condition in which the short arm and the long arm separate together at the time of development of egg or sperm. Trisomy 21 is characterised by karyotype 47, XY, + 21 in a case of males and karyotype 47, XX, + 21 in a case of females. This condition is a result of the erroneous separation of the chromosome 21 at the time of sperm or egg development. Robertsonian translocation occurs only in 2-4% cases when the long arm of the chromosome 21 erroneously gets attached to another chromosome instead of the chromosome 14 for normal cases. Mosaicism is referred to the condition in which two dissimilar genotypes present in humans after developing from a single egg due to misdivision. This condition gives rise to two different cell lineages in individuals contributing to tissues and organs having mosaicism. One of the cell lineages has the normal number of chromosome while the second lineage has an extra number of chromosome 21 [15]. Correlation between genotype and phenotype As per the gene dosage imbalance, patients suffering from Down syndrome carry an increased copy number of the gene on Hsa 21 resulting in increased gene expression [13-15]. Within the hypothesis, the chances of particular genes and gene subsets controlling particular Down syndrome phenotypes have been encompassed [16]. As per the Amplified developmental instability hypothesis, genetic imbalance results from a non-specific dosage of a number of trisomic genes. The regulation and expression of a number of genes are impacted due to this along the whole genome [13-14]. Another related hypothesis on this subject is the critical region hypothesis. Phenotypic analysis gave rise to the conclusion that individuals having partial trisomy for Hsa 21 possess one or few small Down syndrome critical regions (DSCR) that are 3.8-6.5 Mb in length, located at the 21q region. Around 30 genes are responsible for the majority of phenotypes leading to Down syndrome [15-16]. A region of 1.6-2.5 Mb was prev iously recognised as the sole reason for a phenotype of the syndrome [17-18]. The research on Down syndrome witnessed a milestone with the advent of the sequencing of Hsa 21 [19]. With the possibility of Hsa 21 sequencing, more information about the relation between phenotype and genotype was able to be gathered, and accurate characterisation of DSCR regions became possible [13]. A number of Down syndrome phenotypes, like, clinodactyly of the fifth finger, congenital heart defects of the endocardial cushions, craniofacial abnormalities, and mental retardation were believed to be resulting from a critical region within 21q22 [20]. Scientists have suggested that Down syndrome cell adhesion molecule (DSCAM), acting as a regulator of calcineurin 1 (RCAN1), and phosphorylation-regulated kinase (DYRK1A) have a pivotal role in the brain development. It also has a role in augmented risks of congenital heart diseases (CHD) in people suffering from Down syndrome [21-22]. Neural differentiatio n, development of neural networks and axon guidance involves DSCAM to be a significant factor in their functioning. Any form of disruption occurring in these processes leads to the Down syndrome neuro-cognitive phenotype [22]. Different studies on mouse models and humans suffering from Down syndrome have indicated that no single region of genes is responsible for all of the phenotypes of this syndrome. On the other hand, there are chances that multiple critical regions or genes are responsible for a particular phenotype or a group of phenotypes that are associated with Down syndrome [23]. Risk factors There are a number of risk factors which have been suggested to contribute to the birth of a child with DS, like maternal grandmothers diet, lifestyles, genotype, occupational and environmental exposures. All of these factors cause recombination errors, giving rise to nondisjunction of chromosome 21 at maternal meiosis I. This happens at the time of fetal development in the body of the maternal grandmother or first events in sequential meiosis I and meiosis II errors (Copped 2015). Age of mother at conception, maternal diet, lifestyles, genotype and occupational and environmental exposures increase the chances of meiotic errors at maternal meiosis II or the second event in sequential meiosis I and II errors giving rise to chromosome 21 nondisjunction (Rowsey et al. 2013). Dietary habits of the father, along with the genotype, lifestyles and occupational and environmental exposure is a contributing factor towards chromosome 21 disomy in spermatozoa. The trisomy 21 of paternal origin i s the result of this (Oliver et al. 2009). Complex association of the genome of developing trisomic embryo with maternal environmental exposures and genotype, diet increases the chances of miscarriage of trisomy 21 pregnancies or survival up to the birth. Genetic variants that are inherited from environmentally induced epigenetic modifications and parents at the time of early development can lead to survival to the birth. Screening and Diagnostic methods There are two types of tests available for DS, which can be done prior to the birth of a baby; they are screening tests and diagnostic tests. Though the screening tests do not provide information that the disorder would take place in the baby surely, however, it merely states the chances that a baby may develop such a disorder. Whereas, the diagnosis tests facilitate 100% accurate results and provide absolute diagnosis. A new screening technique is available for prenatal screening among the pregnant mothers. The blood tests help in measuring the amount of substances present in the mothers blood. These tests help in estimating the chances of the mother to give birth to a baby with DS. Mostly, the screening tests include blood or serum tests and sonogram. These advanced techniques are now available for detection of fetal chromosomes that circulates in mothers blood. Unlike the diagnostic tests, these screening tests are non-invasive but give accurate results. The diagnostic tests that are available for prenatal detection of DS include Chronic Villus Sampling (CVS) as well as amniocentesis. These procedures although carry a risk factor of 1% chance of miscarriage, nevertheless these methodologies provide with 100% accurate diagnosis of DS. Amniocentesis is generally done during the second trimester of gestation period between 15 and 20 weeks, CVS is performed mostly between 9 and 14 weeks of pregnancy. The recognition of DS is generally performed at birth. It is detected by the presence of certain physical characteristics such as low tonality of muscles, a single crease in the palm are of the hand, flat profile, rounded face and upturned eyes. However, such traits are sometimes present in normal babies, so a chromosomal analysis is don e referred to as karyotype in order to reaffirm the diagnosis. Generally, blood is drawn from cells of the baby for performing the karyotype. The chromosomes are photographed. They are grouped according to their size, shape and number. In this way, the doctors diagnose DS by examination of the karyotype. There is another test for examining genetic disorders known as uorescent in situ hybridization(FISH). This is applied using the same principle as that of the karyotype for confirming the diagnosis for shorter time-period (Palomaki et al., 2012). After it was discovered in the year 1969 that fetal lymphocytes are present in maternal blood, cell-free fetal nucleic acids (cffNA) has proved to be a suitable method for early non-invasive prenatal diagnosis [64]. The genetic status that a fetus has can be easily detected by this appropriate approach. A small fraction of the total circulating cell-free DNA, around 3-6% is cell-free fetal DNA. Research has indicated that cffDNA is initially observable in the time frame of 7 weeks of gestation. With the progress of pregnancy, there is an increase in the amount of cffDNA. cffDNA is found to be reducing after the baby is born and cannot be detected in the blood of the mother [65]. The possible applications of the advanced technology can be categorised into two groups; (i) high genetic risks families who have inheritable monogenic diseases, sex determination and detection of paternally inherited single gene disorders [66,67]; and (ii) regular antenatal care given to all women who are pr egnant, encompassing prenatal diagnosis, screening for aneuploidy, like Down syndrome, and Rhesus factor diagnosis in women who are RhD negative [65]. Management of Down syndrome DS is not curable. However, early interventions and treatment procedures may help the individuals to lead productive life. The treatments include exercises, speech and occupational therapy for improving the motor abilities. Special educational patterns and proper care with attention can help them further. The medical complications like hearing impairments, thyroid and related disorders can be corrected surgically. The use of amino acid supplements as well as drugs like Piracetam is believed to provide improved ability to apprehend and teach (Bartesaghi et al., 2015). In attempts to cure DS, many researchers have made great efforts in tackling DS through gene therapy. Gene therapy has already been tested on animals and success has been achieved. Some researchers in July 2013have attempted to bring developments in the chromosome therapy for Down syndrome. Inactivation of one copy of chromosome 21 was possible by the insertion of a copy of the X-inactive specific transcript (XIST) gene into the chromosome. The gene is normally responsible for the inactivation of one X female chromosome out of the two present. XIST is responsible for encoding an RNA that is non-coding in nature. This RNA silences expression of genes through the process that covers the X-chromosome with a blanket of RNA. This RNA blanket is then responsible for triggering a sequence of chromosomal changes for silencing the expression of genes. Such changes include chemical modifications resulting in the histones to be more tightly wrapped by the DNA. A condensed X chromosome, termed as the Barr body, is therefore formed, with a silent gene expression. A research publication in August 2015 discussed a novice therapy to be utilised for Down syndrome. The researchers were able to generate cells having the typical chromosome number through the introduction of the ZSCAN gene 4 into the cell line of individuals suffering from this trisomic condition. They were successful in converting a full trisomic condition into a mosaic syndrome, of which some had an extra chromosome while some did not. Mosaicism takes place in a natural process in some people suffering from Down syndrome; however, this therapy marked the possibility of inducing a mosaic condition with the help of genetic therapy. Researchers at Boston University and Yale University in the year 2016 did a comparison of Down syndrome across development and adulthood with gene expressions in different parts of the human brain. The findings were such that white matter is established in the brain in a changing process from infancy to adulthood. White matter is responsible for insulating the nerve fibers of the brain that is axons. The finding that the study led to was unanticipated since the present theory states that many of the changes that lead to intellectual disability take place prenatally in Down syndrome. The results also indicated that changes in white matter are a result of particular defects in a certain group of brain cells, termed as oligodendrocytes,' occurring during the developmental stages. Oligodendrocytes are behind the formation of white matter and any defects in it lead to a stalled nerve transmission. Ethical issues The factors that contribute to the availability of screening services to patients include financial status, subject knowledge, and patient education on the information relevant to the syndrome. This concern of patients access to services raises an equity issue. For instance, the cost of services may reach up to $1000 in the private sector. The prevailing inequality in relation to access to services for the couple to have a child forms a vital argument supporting the universal availability of the test (Bassett, Lee et al. 2004). Some argue the need of setting guidelines for ensuring standardisation in the process of prenatal screening (Pratte, 2003, p. 197). Another challenge that draws attention is that there is an absence of skilled healthcare professionals capable of providing information to the patients regarding the process of screening. The general population would be benefitted by the implementation of a well-developed screening program that can provide them with guidance and information on the standardisation of the information. The result of such approach would be the proper assessment of practices for ensuring optimal quality. Parents need to be provided with balanced and accurate information regarding the definite effects of child birth with Down syndrome. They are also required to be provided with this information in a manner that is not affected by the education level and social class they have. The underpinning principle behind these needs is that reproductive decisions are taken up by the parents. This need for imparting medical information is applicable for testing options as this would make it possible for parents to eva luate the risk of Down syndrome and confirm it. At present, the accessibility of tests is dependent on the financial condition of the parents as well as local resources. Since pregnant women over the age of 35 have a risk to carry a fetus with this syndrome, these women are offered amniocentesis. However, there is a major risk associated with the diagnostic test, and that is the fetal loss (Wilson, Langlois et al. 2007). The loss of fetus also includes cases of foetuses that are healthy, and chances were there to have them born alive in case the test was not performed. There is a possibility of identifying the risks prior to the diagnostic test is done, and this approach would eliminate the need of performing the amniocentesis test (Bassett, Lee et al., 2004, p. 109). The risk has been a reason why researchers have suggested other diagnostic methods. For instance, the group of researchers had been making efforts to develop methods for establishing a diagnostic method that would involve analysis of fetal cells and DNA from the blood of the mother (Audibert, 2006). Pregnancy termination is the only possible action for preventing giving birth to Down syndrome babies as there are no suitable medical solutions (Kohut, Rusen et al. 2002, p. 5). Abortion has been made illegal in Canada since the year 1969 (Pratte, 2203, p. 72) and the instance of its practice is not confined (Doucet, Ltourneau et al., 2007, p. 31). Pregnancy termination is not an option for many individuals. Some consider screening to raise a question of a life worth living as the condition cannot be cured at present. Conclusion DS is one of the most commonly occurring genetic disorders that occur due to formation of an extra copy of chromosome 21. Many theories have provided insight into the genotype and phenotype correlation and increased our knowledge in this matter. A critical region within 21q22 was thought to be the main reason behind different Down syndrome phenotyping, like congenital heart defects of the endocardial cushions, clinodactyly of the fifth finger craniofacial abnormalities, and mental retardation. The modern diagnostic procedures are however capable of detecting the disorder with accuracy. In this way, early detection can be helpful for treating such patients by speech therapy, exercises so that they can lead a prospective life. However, further advancement in the field of genetics will help in adding on to more technologies for treating DS. References: Bartesaghi, R., Haydar, T. F., Delabar, J. M., Dierssen, M., Martnez-Cu, C., Bianchi, D. W. (2015). New Perspectives for the Rescue of Cognitive Disability in Down Syndrome.The Journal of Neuroscience,35(41). Epstein, C. J. (2013). of Down Syndrome.Molecular Genetic Medicine,2, 105. Langlois, S., Brock, J. A., Wilson, R. D., Audibert, F., Carroll, J., Cartier, L., ... Okun, N. (2013). Current status in non-invasive prenatal detection of Down syndrome, trisomy 18, and trisomy 13 using cell-free DNA in maternal plasma.Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada,35(2). Malt, E. A., Dahl, R. C., Haugsand, T. M., Ulvestad, I. H., Emilsen, N. M., Hansen, B., ... Davidsen, E. M. (2013). Health and disease in adults with Down syndrome.Tidsskrift for den Norske laegeforening: tidsskrift for praktisk medicin, ny raekke,133(3). Palomaki, G. E., Deciu, C., Kloza, E. M., Lambert-Messerlian, G. M., Haddow, J. E., Neveux, L. M., ... Nelson, S. F. (2012). DNA sequencing of maternal plasma reliably identifies trisomy 18 and trisomy 13 as well as Down syndrome: an international collaborative study.Genetics in medicine,14(3). Vos, T., Barber, R. M., Bell, B., Bertozzi-Villa, A., Biryukov, S., Bolliger, I., ... Duan, L. (2015). Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 19902013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013.The Lancet,386(9995). www.nads.org,. (2016). Facts About Down Syndrome- National Association for Down Syndrome. Retrieved 31 October 2016, from https://www.nads.org/resources/facts-about-down-syndrome/ www.scicarlyrae.files.wordpress.com,. (2016). Retrieved 31 October 2016, from https://scicarlyrae.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/pedigree1.png

CCLD Management free essay sample

As child practitioners we must work on our skills in communicating with children because the way we communicate with them is important not only for their communication and language development, but also the development of our relationship with them. Young children often arent able to express their thoughts and feelings in words, or express them poorly. Because of this, its important that child practitioners can listen carefully and help children to learn how to express themselves and also provide what they need. Communicating involves giving, receiving and making sense of information. Children do this by using non- verbal means of communication, talking, listening, thinking, and understanding. In time, the skills of reading and writing enrich this experience. Communicating is a two-way activity; as well as learning to share their experiences with others children also learn to interpret what others are sharing with them. They communicate in many different ways including facial expressions, gestures, body movements, sounds, language and for some children, through assistive technology. Children’s language is more than words, phrases and sentences. It includes art, Braille, dance, drama, music, poetry, pictures, sculpture, signing, and stories. While most children eventually master spoken and written language as their key means of communicating, they continue to speak through their gestures, body movements and expressions to a greater or lesser extent. Some children with special educational needs may need additional and consistent support throughout their lifetime to practise, learn and perfect the art of non-verbal communication. Active listening Active listening is not just hearing, but focusing on what the child or young person is trying to say and communicate. The term ‘active’ is an accurate description. Active listening takes time but a thoughtful attitude of acceptance of children’s feelings helps children to drop their defensive attitudes, opening the opportunity for a more positive type of communication. In active listening, non-language signals are particularly meaningful. Listeners should be careful about expressing their own feelings and their reactions to what the speaker is saying and concentrate on just listening. At times, the listener may need to reflect some of the content or feelings of the speaker. Just a nod or small sound can acknowledge that the listener recognises and understands what the speaker is saying. All too often, we listen without hearing in the same way we look but cannot see. Below is a list of things you may do in order to be an active listener. Eye contact – you need to show children and young people that you are interested in what they have to say. By looking at a child or young person you show them that they have your full attention. Sometimes, during conversation they may look away or down and this may be a sign that what they are about to say may be uncomfortable or difficult for them. Body language – child practitioners tend to be busy. This unfortunately can send out signals that they have no time to listen. By coming down to the child’s level or sitting with a young person, you can send out the signal that you are ready to listen. You must not look distracted in this time and look relaxed and settled. Summarising – it can sometimes be helpful to summarise what the child or young person is trying to say. This helps you check that you understand their meaning, for example â€Å"so you wanted to play with Mark, but he wasn’t in nursery today†. Reflecting – this is a useful technique that must be carefully used. The last few words are reflected back which helps the child or young person to maintain communication. Questioning – while children and young people do not want to be interrogated, asking odd questions that develop what they have said is sometimes useful. This might be through a mix of open and closed questions. For example, a closed question such as â€Å"are you enjoying this? † is quite safe as it allows the child to simply answer yes or no and they can add to it if they wish. Open questions such as â€Å"why do you like this one? † are good at encouraging children to talk a little more as they require a fuller answer. Using questions can show your interest and help you explore some issues. Non verbal communication By observing us children learn how to interact with others, accomplish goals, and get along in the world. We are the examples, and what many do not realize is that our non-verbal messages and actions are stronger than our verbal ones. Non-verbal communication consists of expressions, tone of voice, eye contact, and actions. The way you listen, look, move, and react tells the other person whether or not you care, if you’re being truthful, and how well you’re listening. When your nonverbal signals match up with the words you’re saying, they increase trust, clarity, and rapport. When they don’t, they generate tension, mistrust, and confusion. There are many different types of nonverbal communication. Together, the following nonverbal signals and cues communicate your interest and investment in others. Facial expressions -The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures. Body movements and posture Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand up, or hold their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the world. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle movements. Gestures Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon, and use our hands when we’re arguing or speaking animatedly, expressing ourselves with gestures often without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and regions, so it’s important to be careful to avoid misinterpretation. Eye contact Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of conversation and for gauging the other person’s response. Touch We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about the messages given by the following: a weak handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring slap on the back, a patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm. Space Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other person was standing too close and invading your space? We all have a need for physical space, although that need differs depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy and affection, aggression or dominance. Voice It’s not just what you say, it’s how you say it. When we speak, other people â€Å"read† our voices in addition to listening to our words. Things they pay attention to include your timing and pace, how loud you speak, your tone and inflection, and sounds that convey understanding, such as â€Å"ahh† and â€Å"uh-huh. † Think about how someones tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or confidence. Reciprocal communication Reciprocal communication involves a give and a take, and another give and take. also referred to as â€Å"two way communication† it gives the child the sense of intention and meaning. When the child â€Å"opens† a circle by holding out a toy, the adult â€Å"closes† the circle by saying â€Å"Oooh, for me? †. Communication develops through loving relationships because the child feels a sense of comfort and joy in these back and forth interactions. As the child opens and closes more circles, his verbal and non – verbal communication develops. During â€Å"circle time† at the setting we use a tool called the ‘talking bear’. During discussion, in order for all children to have their say, and feelings heard, in turn they are handed the talking bear. Only when the child is holding the bear, they can speak while the rest of the group listening. This technique has proven effective and not only does it encourage turn taking, but it helps develop their active listening skills. Augmentative communication Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) includes all forms of communication (other than oral speech) that are used to express thoughts, needs, wants, and ideas. We all use AAC when we make facial expressions or gestures, use symbols or pictures, or write. People with severe speech or language problems rely on AAC to supplement existing speech or replace speech that is not functional. Special augmentative aids, such as picture and symbol communication boards and electronic devices, are available to help people express themselves. This may increase social interaction, school performance, and feelings of self-worth. AAC can be high tech, such as a computer that is programmed to talk for the child. AAC can also be low tech by using simple pictures, sign language or a device that plays recorded messages. Speech-language pathologists may help the child to use a picture exchange communication system (PECS). AAC can help people who cannot talk at all. It can also help children who can talk but are hard to understand. A speech-language pathologist will help decide if AAC is appropriate for a child. If the child can benefit from an AAC system, the speech-language pathologist will recommend the appropriate type of AAC system. The speech-language pathologist will also train the child and family members on how to use it effectively. AAC can help the child to improve his or her ability to interact with others and communicate at home, in school, and in the community. It can help the child to participate in school and become more independent. Using AAC can also decrease inappropriate behaviors, such as tantrums, crying and whining, that are often due to the child’s difficulty with communication. Gestures, rhymes, songs, finger plays drawings an representation Communicating through gestures is an important part of a childs early language development. Such simple gestures as waving bye-bye or the hand motions that accompany many nursery rhymes can help a child to understand the connection between movement and meaning. Baby’s as young as six months old are sometimes taught a simplified sign language as it can help a child to learn to communicate more quickly and with less frustration. Role play and dressing up is another way of encourage speech and communication. Child practitioners can play alongside them to encourage them with their speech and communication skills. By making it into a fun activity that incorporates their interests then they don’t feel under pressure and speech and language can flow. Nursery rhymes, songs and musical instruments are good for communication skills. This encourages children to listen, sing and communicate; this can be through using their hands to start off with and eventually hands and singing. Musical instruments can be good for the children to practice repeating different sounds that are made or making the sounds louder or quieter. The use of puppets, dolls and cuddly toys are also a good tool for encouraging a child to communicate. When a child first starts getting interested in talking they begin to role play e. g. giving a doll a cup of tea. This is an indication that they are ready to use new words, so we, as child practitioners can encourage this by saying the words e. g. â€Å"doll† and â€Å"cup†. This can only be done if you follow the child’s interests. At the setting we are constantly intercting with the children through all of these communication tools. During â€Å"bora da† time, we encourage the children to join in with the actions, or just clapping at first. When they feel confident enough then in their own time they begin to sing along with the rest of the group. A home corner or role play area specific to our theme is set up daily. This is an area you see the children express themselves vocally more often, and even though this time is child led play, staff encourage conversation by asking a few open ended questions relating to their play. Appropriate and accurate use of language Children are social learners and learn by copying other people, so any adults working with them should model good communication, both verbally and non verbally, so that children will learn from them. Language used should be age and development appropriate, and slang words should never be used. A friendly tone of voice is also key for effective communication. This helps the child feel comfortable enough to answer any open ended questions asked, this also goes hand in hand with friendly facial expressions. At the setting, communicating with the children is a key part of our job role as child practitioners. The majority of the staff have attended the â€Å"Elklan† speech and language course for under five year olds. It has taught us the importance of communicating correctly with children, using open, simple questions and allowing the child ten seconds to reply to the question. Every child’s speech and language is observed and issues and concerns are highlighted and addressed.